The Career Development of Teachers

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The Career Development of Teachers
By Andrew D. Carson, Ph.D.

1. Introduction
2. History of Teaching
3. Parents as Teachers: Research on Homeschooling
4. Characteristics of Effective and Problem Teachers
5. Career Development of Teachers: Six Theories
6. Institutional Settings for Training and Teaching
7. Certification and its Alternatives
8. How Teachers Find Jobs
9. The Selection of Teachers and the "Teacher Shortage"

1. Introduction

This essay attempts to summarize what research has shown to be the characteristics of effective (and ineffective) K-12 teachers. It evaluates the methods and conclusions of the studies reviewed in reference to current career development theory, and it suggests research directions that are likely to advance our understanding of the occupation of teaching, and by extension of other occupations. This report is to some degree modeled from one produced by Super and Bachrach (1957), in which they, John Crites, and members of their advisory panel responded to a request from the National Science Foundation to help identify scientific capabilities and motivation in the choice of a career in science.

Despite the importance of teaching for our society, researchers in vocational psychology and career development have devoted relatively little attention to their study, leaving the field, by default, to other educational researchers. Of course, some theories and research in mainstream vocational psychology do touch on the careers of teachers. Holland's (1997) theory, for example, offers a description of the typical vocational personalities of different types of teachers, generally some variation of the Social type individual. Other vocational classification systems similarly assign teachers to particular categories related to personality, interests, or abilities. But knowing that many teachers are of a particular type tells one little about their career development: their psychological portraits beyond summary type, what their career patterns are like, how good teachers may be developed into excellent ones, and how bad teachers may be identified and either redeemed or moved out of the profession. Although there have been a few vocational psychologists through the years interested in the career development of teachers, their research has not had a significant impact on the field of education and the preparation of teachers, and at any rate as been generally ignored in introductions to the subjects of vocational psychology, career development, and career counseling.

On the other hand, a growing mountain of (generally) qualitative studies of teachers and teaching by teachers themselves and their professors, although rich in context, usually advances our theoretical understanding but little. They provide a mass of facts and opinions but no cognitive tools with which to systematize the data. As an art form, such research is may be impressive, but as a practical tool of policy and technology, it is unfortunately wanting.

Overall, we still know relatively little about what it takes to create or train an expert teacher. For that matter, we know relatively little about who is likely to be a poor teacher, which for present purposes is likely to be just as important to know. The scientific study of the career development of teachers is probably less advanced than that of leading scientists in the period immediately preceeding Sputnik, when at least we had the example of Anne Roe's (1953) excellent report of scientists, which provided a foundation on which Super and Bachrach (1957) extended their report.

The purpose of this essay is to outline is known of the career development of teachers, and what a program of research on the career development of teachers might encompass, and to suggest, where possible, important examples of the sort of theory and research that we need to aid our understanding of this problem. This essay is very much a work in progress, and the author expects to elaborate it over time, possibly adding coauthors along the way. If you are interested in such collaboration, please contact the author by email.

Because this is a work in progress, the following sections will be completed over time. Active links indicate completed sections. Sections without active links represent opportunities for interested readers to collaborate with the author on their completion.

2. History and Definitions of Teaching
The history of teaching (and learning) is examined, with an introduction of the different methods to communicating information between individuals. Definitions of teaching consistent with these various methods are offered. The birth and development of teaching as a state-licensed and regulated profession is examined.

3. Parents as Teachers: Research on Homeschooling
Homeschooling as a movement is described, along with its relation to the "deschooling" movement. Research on the characteristics of parents who homeschool is reviewed.

4. Characteristics of Effective and Problem Teachers
Research on the characteristics of both effective and ineffective (or problem) teachers is examined. Such characteristics include biographical data (biodata), abilities and skills, personality characteristics, interests, and values.

5. Career Development of Teachers: Six Theories
There are many theories that may be useful in understanding the career development of teachers. We briefly examine six of them, including person-environment fit theories (Holland, Gottfredson), expertise theories (Ericsson, Sternberg), social-cognitive theory (Bandura, Hackett, Lent, Brown, Krumboltz, and Others), cognitive theory (Peterson), developmental stage theories (Super), and developmental recapitulationist theory (Carson, Egan). The first five theories are drawn from mainstream vocational psychology, and the sixth is adapted from Egan's (1997) theory of curriculum and development.

6. Institutional Settings for Training and Teaching
The institutions charged with the training of (licensable) teachers are described. Characteristics of teachers entering such programs are described and compared to students entering other fields of study.

7. Certification and its Alternatives
The process through which state and private entities license, certify, or otherwise attest to the qualifications of teachers is described. Characteristics of teachers seeking to become teachers through these alternative pathways are described and compared to those seeking career entry through traditional programs.

8. How Teachers Find Jobs
Research and anecdotal evidence is used to describe how teachers go about finding jobs in their field. Although most teachers find jobs through applications to schools or other institutions, some teachers function as entrepreneurs, starting their own schools.

9. The Selection of Teachers and the "Teacher Shortage"
Schools, school districts, and other organizations hire teachers; their decision-making methods are examined. The so-called teacher shortage is examined in light of the decision-making and search efforts of hiring organizations.

References